‘An Undevout Astronomer is Mad’

Pillars of Creation in Eagle Nebula (Messier 16)

Devotion! daughter of astronomy!
An undevout astronomer is mad.
~ Edward Young (Night Thoughts, Night 9,  l.769)

WE previously posted comments by Scottish theologian and astronomer Thomas Dick (1774−1857) on the Religious Benefits of Astronomy from the Introduction he wrote to Elijah Burritt’s Geography of the Heavens.  A few decades earlier, Dick treated the same subject in the Introduction to his own book The Solar System (1799).  The two introductions are sufficiently different that it seems worthwhile to post the latter here.  Here Dick concludes that it is an “imperative duty” of every Christian (and every rational creature) to study the heavens and to contemplate their Creator, “that we may derive more enlarged conceptions of His glorious attributes, and be enabled to render to Him that tribute of adoration and praise which is due to His name.”

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OF all the sciences which are the subject of human study and investigation, Astronomy must be admitted to be the most interesting and sublime. It teaches us the motions, the magnitudes and distances of the heavenly bodies — their diversified phenomena, the laws by which they are directed in their varied movements, and the grand designs they are intended to fulfil in the vast system of the universe.The objects with which this science is conversant are so grand and marvellous — surpassing every thing that could have been imagined in the infancy of science — that they tend to enlarge the field of human contemplation, to expand to an indefinite extent the conceptions of the human intellect, and to arouse the attention and excite the admiration even of the most incurious and uncultivated minds. The vast magnitude of the heavenly bodies, so far surpassing what could be conceived by their appearance to the unassisted eye; their incalculable numbers; the immense velocity of their motions, and the astonishing forces with which they are impelled in their career through the heavens; the attractive influence they exert upon each other, at the distance of hundreds of millions of miles; and the important ends they are destined to accomplish in the universal empire of Jehovah; present to the human imagination a scene, and a subject of contemplation, on which the soul of man might expatiate with increasing wonder and delight, during an indefinite series of ages.

Even to a common observer, the heavens present a sublime and elevating spectacle. He beholds an immense concave hemisphere of unknown dimensions, surrounding the earth in every region, and resting as it were upon the circle of the horizon. From every quarter of this vast expanse — when the shades of night have spread over the earth — he beholds numerous lights displayed, proceeding onward in solemn silence, varying their aspects at different seasons, moving with different degrees of velocity, shining with different degrees of splendour, and all calculated to inspire admiration and awe. Wherever he travels abroad, either on the surface of the land or of the ocean, this celestial vault still appears encompassing this lower world; and, after travelling thousands of miles, it appears still the same, and seems to make no nearer an approach than when the journey commenced. While contemplating this wonderful expanse with the eye of reason and imagination, the mind is naturally led into a boundless train of speculations and inquiries. Where do these mighty heavens begin, and where do they end? Can imagination fathom their depth, or human calculations, or figures, express their extent? Have the highest created beings ever winged their flight across the boundaries of the firmament? Can angels measure the dimensions of those heavens, or explore them throughout all their departments? Is there a boundary to creation beyond which the energies of Omnipotence are unknown, or does it extend throughout the infinity of space? Is the immense fabric of the universe yet completed, or is Almighty Power still operating throughout the boundless dimensions of space, and new creations still starting into existence?

Such views and inquiries have a tendency to lead the mind to sublime and interesting trains of thought and reflection, and to afford scope for the noblest energies and investigations of the human intellect. A serious contemplation of the heavens opens to the mental eye a glimpse of orbs of inconceivable magnitude and grandeur, and arranged in multitudes which no man can number, which have diffused their radiance on our world during hundreds of generations. It opens a vista which carries our views into the regions of infinity, and exhibits a sensible display of the immensity of space, and of the boundless operations of Omnipotence: it demonstrates the existence of an eternal and incomprehensible Divinity, who presides in all the grandeur of his attributes over an unlimited empire. Amidst the silence and the solitude of the midnight scene, it inspires the soul with a solemn awe, and with reverential emotions; it excites astonishment, admiration, and wonder, and has a tendency to enkindle the fire of devotion, and to raise the affections to that ineffable Being who presides in high authority over all the movements of the universe. It teaches us the littleness of man, the folly of pride and ambition, and of all that earthly pomp and splendour with which mortals are so enamoured and that our thoughts and affections ought to soar above all the sinful pursuits, and transitory enjoyments, of this sublunary scene.

Such being the views and the tendencies of this science, it ought to be considered as bearing an intimate relation to religion, and worthy the study of every enlightened Christian. It has been said, and justly, by a celebrated poet, that “An undevout astronomer is mad.”  The evidence of a self-existent and eternal Being, whose wisdom is inscrutable, and whose power is uncontrollable, is so palpably manifested in the arrangement and the motions of the celestial orbs, that it cannot but make an indelible impression on every rational and reflecting mind. Though the heavenly bodies have “no speech nor language,” though they move round the earth in silent grandeur, and “their voice is not heard” in articulate sounds, yet “their line is gone throughout all the earth, and their words to the end of the world” — proclaiming to every attentive spectator, that “The hand that made them is Divine.” So that there is scarcely a tribe, or nation, on the face of the earth so inattentive and barbarous as not to have deduced this conclusion from a survey of the movements of the celestial orbs. “Men,” says Plato, ” began to acknowledge a Deity, when they saw the stars maintain so great a harmony, and the days and nights throughout all the year, both in summer and winter, to observe their stated risings and settings.” Another heathen philosopher, Cicero, thus expresses his sentiments on this point: “What can be so plain and clear as, when we behold the heavens, and view the celestial bodies, that we should conclude there is some Deity of a most excellent mind by whom these things are governed a present and Almighty God. Which, he that doubts of, I do not understand why he should not as well doubt whether there be a sun that shines, and enlightens the world.”

The sacred Scriptures, in numerous instances, direct our attention to this subject. “The heavens,” says the psalmist, “declare the glory of God;” that is they manifest his wisdom and power, and beneficence to the inhabitants of the world; — “the firmament showeth forth,” or publicly declareth, “his handiwork.” “Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge. There is no speech nor language where their voice is not heard.” In reference to that department of creation which astronomy explores, it may be said with peculiar propriety, in the language of Scripture “The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein.” Throughout the volume of inspiration, our attention is frequently directed to the contemplation of the heavens: “Lift up thine eyes on high, and behold who hath created these things. The everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth, who fainteth not, neither is weary; there is no searching of his understanding. He bringeth out their host by number, and calleth them all by names: by the greatness of his might, for that N. It is he that sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers. All nations before him are as nothing; and they are counted to him less than nothing, and vanity.””Hearken unto this, O Job: stand still, and consider the wondrous works of God.”

Hence it appears, that it is not to be considered merely as a matter of taste, or as a rational amusement, but as an imperative duty, to contemplate the works of the Most High, and especially the manifestations of his power and Godhead which the heavens display — that we may derive more enlarged conceptions of his glorious attributes, and be enabled to render to him that tribute of adoration and praise which is due to his name. For it is represented as one of the characteristics of the ungodly that, while “the harp, and the viol, and the tabret, and pipe, and wine are in their feasts, they regard not the work of the Lord, neither consider the operation of his hands;” and consequently “he will destroy them, and not build them up.” It is therefore the incumbent duty of the young; of every professing Christian; and of every rational inquirer, not only to study the facts, doctrines, and duties exhibited in the system of Divine revelation, but also to contemplate the manifestations of the Creator as exhibited in the system of creation. They are both revelations of the same almighty and beneficent Being — emanations from the same adorable Divinity; and the views and instructions they respectively unfold, when studied with reverence and intelligence, are in perfect harmony with each other. The study of both combined, is calculated to make the man of God perfect, and “throughly furnished unto all good works.”

In the following small volume, it shall be our endeavour to direct the general reader in the study of some of those objects which the heavens unfold; and we shall chiefly select those parts of astronomical science which are most level to the comprehension of those who have had little opportunity of engaging in scientific pursuits. In the present volume, it is proposed to confine ourselves chiefly to a description of the Solar System, and the phenomena it exhibits, together with a few instructions as to the best mode of contemplating the apparent motions and the diversified aspects of the firmament. The discoveries which relate to the sidereal heavens — the general arrangement of the fixed stars, their distances and magnitudes-the facts which have been discovered respecting new stars-variable stars-double and triple stars — the milky way-the different orders of the nebula and a variety of other topics connected with such objects, will form materials for another volume similar to the present.

In the mean time we may just remark, that all the wonders we behold, both in the heavens above, and in the earth below, demand our serious attention and devout contemplation. They are all the workmanship of that great and adorable Being in whom “we live and move;” who at first “spake, and it was done;” who gave the command, and the whole of this stately fabric of heaven and earth started into being. It is the same God who created the planets and the host of stars, and that conducts them in all their rapid motions; who is also “the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ,” and “the Author of eternal salvation” to all who obey him. All these works display his infinite power, his unerring wisdom, and the riches of his beneficence; and demand from every beholder that tribute of praise, reverence, and adoration which is due to Him “who created all things, and for whose pleasure they are and were created.“

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Bibliography

Dick, Thomas. Advantages of the Study of Astronomy. In: Elijah Hinsdale Burritt, The Geography of the Heavens. 5th ed. New York, 1850 (1st ed, 1833). Dick’s Introduction first appeared in the 3rd edition (1836).

Dick, Thomas. Celestial Scenery, or, The Wonders of the Planetary System Displayed; Illustrating the Perfections of Deity and a Plurality of Worlds. Collected Works of Thomas Dick, Vol. VII. Philadelphia, 1845.

Dick, Thomas. The Solar System. Collected Works of Thomas Dick, Vol. X. Philadelphia, 1853 (1st ed. 1799).

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Thomas Dick: The Religious Benefits of Astronomy

Thomas Dick (1774–1857)

THOMAS DICK (1774–1857) was a Scottish philosopher, minister, and popular writer on science and astronomy. Quite progressive in his thought, he was ahead of his time in championing the concept of cosmic pluralism, that is, the existence of intelligent life on other planets.  Whereas many of his contemporaries considered this concept antithetical to Christianity, Dick believed that a universe with trillions of intelligent beings on other planets glorified God all the more. In any case, he argued, the wonders of astronomy supply a seemingly endless school for the intellect and soul, one that may potentially continue beyond our earthly life. Dick argued (as did ancient pagan and Christian writers) that the contemplation of the heavens elevated the soul, enlarged the mind, inspired awe and wonder, and awakened or intensified the natural religious inclinations of human beings.

He explored these themes in an excellent Introduction written for the 3rd edition of Elihu Burritt’s Geography of the Heavens.  Dick first outlines some of the practical benefits of the study of Astronomy, including its uses in such areas of Geography, Navigation, Chronology and Agriculture.  He then proceeds to his main theme: the moral and religious benefits of Astronomy. This longer section is supplied below. He concludes with the suggestion that regular observation of the heavens form a part of every student’s education.

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ASTRONOMY is a science which has, in all ages, engaged the attention of the poet, the philosopher, and the divine, and been the subject of their study and admiration. Kings have descended from their thrones to render it homage, and have sometimes enriched it with their labors; and humble shepherds, while watching their flocks by night, have beheld with rapture the blue vault of heaven, with its thousand shining orbs moving in silent grandeur, till the morning star announced the approach of day. The study of this science must have been co-eval with the existence of man. For there is no rational being who, for the first time, has lifted his eyes to the nocturnal sky, and beheld the moon walking in brightness among the planetary orbs and the host of stars, but must have been struck with awe and admiration at the splendid scene, and its sublime movements, and excited to anxious inquiries into the nature, the motions, and the destinations of those far-distant orbs. Compared with the splendor, the amplitude, the august motions, and the ideas of infinity which the celestial vault presents, the most resplendent terrestrial scenes sink into inanity, and appear unworthy of being set in competition with the glories of the sky.

Independently of the sublimity of its objects, and the pleasure arising from their contemplation, Astronomy is a study of vast utility, in consequence of its connection with terrestrial arts and sciences, many of which are indebted to the observations, and the principles of this science, […]

[Beyond the practical] considerations above stated, the study of astronomy is attended with many advantages in a moral, intellectual, and religious point of view.

1. This department of science unfolds to us the most striking displays of the perfections of the Deity — particularly the grandeur of his omnipotence. His Wisdom is conspicuously displayed in the general arrangement of the heavenly orbs, particularly in reference to the globes which compose the solar system — in placing near the center of this system that immense luminary the Sun, from whence light and heat might be distributed, in due proportion, to all the worlds that roll around it — in nicely proportioning the motions and distances of all the planets, primary and secondary — in uniting them in one harmonious system, by one grand universal law which prevents them from flying off in wild confusion through the infinity of space — in the constancy and regularity of their motions, no one interfering with another, or deviating from the course prescribed — in the exactness with which they run their destined rounds, finishing their circuits with so much accuracy as not to deviate from their periods of revolution the hundredth part of a minute in a thousand years in the spherical figures given to all those mighty orbs, and the diurnal motions impressed upon them, by which a due proportion of light and heat is diffused over every part of their surface. The Benevolence of the Deity shines no less conspicuous in those upper regions, in ordering all the movements and arrangements of the celestial globes so as to act in subserviency to the comfort and happiness of sentient and intelligent beings. For, the wisdom of God is never employed in devising means without an end; and the grand end of all his arrangements, in so far as our views extend, is the communication of happiness; and it would be inconsistent with the wisdom and other perfections of God not to admit, that the same end is kept in view in every part of his dominions, however far removed from the sphere of our contemplation. The heavens, therefore, must be considered as presenting a boundless scene of Divine benevolence. For they unfold to view a countless number of magnificent globes, calculated to be the habitations of various orders of beings, and which are, doubtless, destined to be the abodes of intellectual life. For the character of the Deity would be impeached, and his wisdom virtually denied, were we to suppose him to arrange and establish a magnificent series of means without an end corresponding, in utility and dignity, to the grandeur of the contrivance. When, therefore, we consider the innumerable worlds which must exist throughout the immensity of space, the countless myriads of intelligences that people them, the various ranks and orders of intellect that may exist among them, the innumerable diversified arrangements which are made for promoting their enjoyment, and the peculiar displays of Divine benignity enjoyed in every world — we are presented with a scene of Divine goodness and beneficence which overpowers our conceptions, and throws completely into the shade all that we perceive or enjoy within the confines of this sublunary world. And, although the minute displays of Divine benevolence in distant worlds are not yet particularly unfolded to our view, yet this circumstance does not prove that no such displays exist; — and as we are destined to an immortal life in another region of creation, we shall, doubtless, be favored with a more expansive view of the effects of Divine benignity in that eternal scene which lies before us.

But this science exhibits a more striking display than any other of the Omnipotent energies of the Eternal Mind. It presents before us objects of overpowering magnitude and splendor — planetary globes a thousand times larger than the earth — magnificent rings which would nearly reach from the earth to the moon, and would inclose within their vast circumference 500 worlds as large as ours — suns a million times larger than this earthly ball, diffusing their light over distant worlds — and these suns scattered in every direction through the immensity of space, at immeasurable distances from each other, and in multitudes of groups which no man can number; presenting to the eye and the imagination a perspective of starry systems, boundless as immensity. It presents to our view motions so astonishing as to overpower and almost terrify the imagination — bodies a thousand times larger than the earth flying with a velocity of 29,000 miles an hour, performing circuits more than three thousand millions of miles in circumference, and carrying along with them a retinue of revolving worlds in their swift career; nay, motions, at the rate of 880,000 miles an hour, have been perceived among the celestial orbs, which as far surpass the motions we behold around us in this lower world, as the heavens in height surpass the earth. Such motions are perceived not only in the solar system, but in the most distant regions of the universe, among double stars — they are regular and uninterrupted — they have been going forward for thousands, perhaps for millions of years — there is perhaps no body in the universe but is running its round with similar velocity; and it is not unlikely that the whole machine of universal nature is in perpetual motion amidst the spaces of immensity, and will continue thus to move throughout all the periods of endless duration. Such objects and such motions evidently display the omnipotence of the Creator beyond every other scene which creation presents; and, when seriously contemplated, cannot but inspire us with the most lofty and impressive conceptions of the “eternal power” and majesty of Him who sits on the throne of the universe, and by whom all its mighty movements are conducted. They demonstrate, that his agency is universal and uncontrollable — that he is able to accomplish all his designs, however incomprehensible to mortals — that no created being can frustrate his purposes, and that he is worthy of our highest affection, and our incessant adoration.

2. Astronomy displays before us the extent and grandeur of God’s universal empire, The globe we inhabit, with all its appendages, forms a portion of the Divine empire, and, when minutely investigated, exhibits a striking display of its Creator’s power, benignity, and intelligence. But it forms only one small province of his universal dominions — an almost undistinguishable speck in the great map of the universe: and if we confine our views solely to the limits of this terrestrial ball, and the events which have taken place on its surface, we must form a very mean and circumscribed idea of the extent of the Creator’s kingdom and the range of his moral government. But the discoveries of astronomy have extended our views to other provinces of the empire of Omnipotence, far more spacious and magnificent. They demonstrate, that this earth, with all its vast oceans and mighty continents, and numerous population, ranks among the smaller provinces of this empire — that the globes composing the system to which it belongs, (without including the sun,) contain an extent of territory more than two thousand times larger than our world — that the sun himself is more than 500 times larger than the whole, and that, although they were all at this moment buried in oblivion, they would scarcely be missed by an eye that could survey the whole range of creation. They demonstrate, that ten thousands of suns, and ten thousand times ten thousands of revolving worlds, are dispersed throughout every region of boundless space, displaying the creating and supporting energies of Omnipotence; and consequently, are all under the care and superintendence of Him “who doeth according to his will in the armies of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth.” Such an empire, and such only, appears corresponding to the perfections of Him who has existed from eternity past, whose power is irresistible, whose goodness is unbounded, and whose presence fills the immensity of space; and it leads us to entertain the most exalted sentiments of admiration at the infinite intelligence implied in the superintendence of such vast dominions, and at the boundless beneficence displayed among the countless myriads of sensitive and intellectual beings which must people his wide domains.

3. The objects which this science discloses, afford subjects of sublime contemplation, and tend to elevate the soul above vicious passions and groveling pursuits. In the hours of retirement and solitude what can be more delightful, than to wing our way in imagination amidst the splendid objects which the firmament displays — to take our flight along with the planets in their wide career to behold them running their ample rounds with velocities forty times swifter than a cannon ball — to survey the assemblages of their moons, revolving around them in their respective orders, and carried at the same time, along with their primaries, through the depths of space — to contemplate the magnificent arches which adorn the firmament of Saturn, whirling round that planet at the rate of a thousand miles in a minute, and displaying their radiance and majestic movements to an admiring population — to add scene to scene, and magnitude to magnitude, till the mind acquire an ample conception of such august objects — to dive into the depths of infinite space till we be surrounded with myriads of suns and systems of worlds, extending beyond the range of mortal comprehension, and all running their appointed rounds, and accomplishing the designs of beneficence in obedience to the mandate of their Almighty Author? Such objects afford matter for rational conversation, and for the most elevated contemplation. In this ample field the most luxuriant imagination may range at large, representing scenes and objects in endless variety and extent; and, after its boldest excursions, it can scarcely go beyond the reality of the magnificent objects which exist within the range of creating power and intelligence.

The frequent contemplation of such objects tends to enlarge the capacity of the mind, to ennoble the human faculties, and raise the soul above groveling affections and vicious pursuits. For the dispositions of mankind and their active pursuits generally correspond to the train of thought in which they most frequently indulge. If these thoughts run among puerile and vicious objects, such will be the general character of their affections and conduct. If their train of thinking take a more elevated range, the train of their actions, and the passions they display, will, in some measure, be correspondent.

Can we suppose, that a man whose mind is daily conversant with the noble and expansive objects to which I have adverted, would have his soul absorbed in the pursuits of ambition, tyranny, oppression, war, and devastation?

Would he rush like a madman through burning cities, and mangled carcasses of the slain, in order to trample underfoot the rights of mankind, and enjoy a proud pre-eminence over his fellows — and find pleasure in such accursed pursuits?

Would he fawn on statesmen and princes, and violate every moral principle, in order to obtain a pension, or a post of opulence or honor? Would he drag his fellow-men to the stake, because they worshiped God according to the dictates of their consciences, and behold with pleasure their bodies roasting in the flames?

Would he drive men, women, and children from their homes, loaded with chains and fetters, to pine in misery and to perish in a distant land, merely because they asserted the rights to which they were entitled as citizens and as rational beings?

Or, would he degrade himself below the level of the brutes by a daily indulgence in rioting and drunkenness, till his faculties were benumbed, and his body found wallowing in the mire?

It is scarcely possible to suppose that such passions and conduct would be displayed by the man who is habitually engaged in celestial contemplations, and whose mind is familiar with the august objects which the firmament displays. “If men were taught to act in view of all the bright worlds which are looking down upon them, they could not be guilty of those abominable cruelties” which some scenes so mournfully display. We should then expect, that the iron rod of oppression would be broken in pieces — that war would cease its horrors and devastations — that liberty would be proclaimed to the captives — that “righteousness would run down our streets as a river,” and a spirit congenial to that of the inhabitants of heaven would be displayed by the rulers of nations, and by all the families of the earth. For all the scenes which the firmament exhibits have a tendency to inspire tranquillity — to produce a love of harmony and order, to stain the pride of human grandeur — to display the riches of Divine beneficence — to excite admiration and reverence and to raise the soul to God as the Supreme Director of universal nature, and the source and center of all true enjoyment; — and such sentiments and affections are directly opposed to the degrading pursuits and passions which have contaminated the society of our world, and entailed misery on our species.

I might have added, on this head, that the study of this subject has a peculiar tendency to sharpen and invigorate the mental faculties. It requires a considerable share of attention and of intellectual acumen to enter into all the particulars connected with the principles and facts of astronomical science. The elliptical form of the planetary orbits, and the anomalies thence arising, the mutation of the earth’s axis, the causes of the seasons, the difficulty of reconciling the apparent motions of the planets with their real motions in circular or elliptical orbits, the effects produced by centrifugal and centripetal forces, the precession of the equinoxes, the aberration of light, the method of determining the distances and magnitudes of the celestial bodies, mean and apparent time, the irregularity of the moon’s motion, the difficulty of forming adequate ideas of the immense spaces in which the heavenly bodies move, and their enormous size, and various other particulars, are apt, at first view, to startle and embarrass the mind, as if they were beyond the reach of its comprehension. But, when this science is imparted to the young under the guidance of enlightened instructors — when they are shown not merely pictures, globes and orreries, but directed to observe with their own eyes, and with the assistance of telescopes, all the interesting phenomena of the heavens, and the motions which appear, whether real or apparent — when they are shown the spots of the sun, the moons and belts of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the rings of Saturn, and the mountains and vales which diversify the surface of the moon — such objects tend to awaken the attention, to expand the faculties, to produce a taste for rational investigation, and to excite them to more eager and diligent inquiries into the subject. The objects appear so grand and novel, and strike the senses with so much force and pleasure, that the mind is irresistibly led to exert all its energies in those investigations and observations by which it may be enabled to grasp all the principles and facts of the science. And every difficulty which is surmounted adds a new stimulus to the exertions of the intellect, urges it forward with delight in the path of improvement, and thus invigorates the mental powers, and prepares them for engaging with spirit and alacrity in every other investigation.

4. The study of astronomy has a tendency to moderate the pride of man, and to promote humility. Pride is one of the distinguishing characteristics of puny man, and has been one of the chief causes of all the contentions, wars, devastations, oppressions, systems of slavery, despotisms, and ambitious projects which have desolated and demoralized our sinful world. Yet there is no disposition more incongruous to the character and circumstances of man. Perhaps there are no rational beings throughout the universe among whom pride would appear more unseemly or incompatible than in man, considering the abject situation in which he is placed. He is exposed to innumerable degradations and calamities, to the rage of storms and tempests, the devastations of earthquakes and volcanoes, the fury of whirlwinds, and the tempestuous billows of the ocean, the ravages of the sword, pestilence, famine, and numerous diseases, and, at length, he must sink into the grave, and his body become the companion of worms. The most dignified and haughty of the sons of men are liable to such degradations, and are frequently dependent on the meanest fellow creatures whom they despise, for the greater part of their accommodations and comforts. Yet, in such circumstances, man, that puny worm of the dust, whose knowledge is so limited, whose follies are so numerous and glaring — has the effrontery to strut in all the haughtiness of pride, and to glory in his shame. When scriptural arguments and motives produce little effect, I know no considerations which have a more powerful tendency to counteract this deplorable propensity of human beings than those which are borrowed from the objects connected with astronomy. They show us what an insignificant being — what a mere atom, indeed, man appears amidst the immensity of creation. What is the whole of this globe, compared with the solar system, which contains a mass of matter ten hundred thousand times greater? What is it in comparison of the hundred millions of suns and worlds which the telescope has descried throughout the starry regions, or of that infinity of worlds which doubtless lie beyond the range of human vision in the unexplored regions of immensity? What, then, is a kingdom, or a province, or a baronial territory, of which we are as proud as if we were the lords of the universe, and for which we engage in so much devastation and carnage? What are they when set in competition with the glories of the sky? Could we take our station on the lofty pinnacles of heaven, and look down on this scarcely distinguishable speck of earth, we should be ready to exclaim with Seneca, “Is it to this little spot that the great designs and vast desires of men are confined? Is it for this there is so much disturbance of nations, so much carnage, and so many ruinous wars? O folly of deceived men, to imagine great kingdoms in the compass of an atom, to raise armies to divide a point of earth with the sword!” It is unworthy of the dignity of an immortal mind to have its affections absorbed in the vanishing splendors of earthly grandeur, and to feel proud of the paltry possessions and distinctions of this sublunary scene. To foster a spirit of pride and vain-glory in the presence of Him who “sitteth on the circle of the heavens, and in the view of the overwhelming grandeur and immensity of his works, is a species of presumption and arrogance of which every rational mind ought to feel ashamed. And, therefore, we have reason to believe, that those multitudes of fools, “dressed in a little brief authority,” who walk in all the loftiness of pride, have not yet considered the rank they hold in the scale of universal being; and that a serious contemplation of the immensity of creation would have a tendency to convince us of our ignorance and nothingness, and to humble us in the dust, in the presence of the Former and Preserver of all worlds. We have reason to believe that the most exalted beings in the universe — those who are furnished with the most capacious powers, and who have arrived at the greatest perfection in knowledge — are distinguished by a proportional share of humility; for, in proportion as they advance in their surveys of the universal kingdom of Jehovah, the more will they feel their comparative ignorance, and be convinced of their limited faculties, and of the infinity of objects and operations which lie beyond their ken. At the same time they will feel, that all the faculties they possess were derived from Him who is the original fountain of existence, and are continually dependent for their exercise on his sustaining energy. Hence we find, that the angelic tribes are eminently distinguished for the exercise of this heavenly virtue. They “cover their faces with their wings” in the presence of their Sovereign, and fly, with cheerfulness, at his command, to our degraded world, “to minister to the heirs of salvation.” It is only in those worlds where ignorance and depravity prevail (if there be any such besides our own) that such a principle as pride is known or cherished in the breast of a dependent creature — and therefore every one in whom it predominates, however high his station or worldly accomplishments, or however abject his condition may be, must be considered as either ignorant or depraved, or more properly, as having both those evils existing in his constitution, the one being the natural and necessary result of the other.

5. The studies connected with astronomy tend to prepare the soul for the employments of the future world. In that world, the glory of the Divine perfections, as manifested throughout the illimitable tracts of creation, is one of the objects which unceasingly employ the contemplation of the blessed. For they are represented in their adorations as celebrating the attributes of the Deity displayed in his operations: “Great and marvelous are thy works, Lord God Almighty! thou art worthy to receive glory and honor and power, for thou hast created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and were created.” Before we can enter that world and mingle with its inhabitants, we must acquire a relish for their employments, and some acquaintance with the objects which form the subject of their sublime investigations; otherwise, we could feel no enjoyment in the society of heavenly intelligences, and the exercises in which they engage. The investigations connected with astronomy, and the frequent contemplation of its objects, have a tendency to prepare us for such celestial employments, as they awaken attention to such subjects, as they invigorate the faculties, and enlarge the capacity of the intellect, as they suggest sublime inquiries, and desires for further information which may afterwards be gratified; as they form the groundwork of the progress we may afterwards make in that state in our surveys of the Divine operations, and as they habituate the mind to take large and comprehensive views of the empire and moral government of the Almighty. Those who have made progress in such studies, under the influence of holy dispositions may be considered as fitted to enter heaven with peculiar advantages, as they will then be introduced to employments and investigations to which they were formerly accustomed, and for which they were prepared — in consequence of which they may be prepared for filling stations of superior eminence in that world, and for directing the views and investigations of their brethren who enjoyed few opportunities of instruction and improvement in the present state. For we are informed, in the sacred records, that “they who are wise,” or as the words should be rendered, “they who excel in wisdom shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that turn many to righteousness, as the stars for ever and ever.”

6. The researches of astronomy demonstrate, that it is in the power of the Creator to open to his intelligent offspring endless sources of felicity. In looking forward to the scene of our future destination, we behold a series of ages rising in succession without any prospect of a termination; and, at first view, it might admit of a doubt, whether the universe presents a scene so diversified and boundless, that intelligent beings, during an endless duration, could expect that new scenes of glory and felicity might be continually opening to their view, or, whether the same series of perceptions and enjoyments might not be reiterated so as to produce satiety and indifference. Without attempting positively to decide on the particular scenes or sources of happiness that may be opened in the eternal world, it may be admitted, that the Deity has it in his power to gratify his rational creatures, during every period of duration, with new objects and new sources of enjoyment; and, that it is the science of astronomy alone which has presented us with a demonstration, and a full illustration of this important truth. For, it has displayed before us a universe boundless in its extent, diversified as to its objects, and infinite as to their number and variety. Even within the limits of human vision the number of worlds which exist cannot be reckoned less than three thousand millions; and those which are nearest to us, and subject to our particular examination, present varieties of different kinds, both as to magnitude, motion, splendor, color and diversity of surface — evidently indicating, that every world has its peculiar scenes of beauty and grandeur. But, as no one will be so presumptuous as to assert, that the boundaries of the universe terminate at the limits of human vision, there may be an assemblage of creation beyond all that is visible to us, which as far exceeds the visible system as the vast ocean exceeds in magnitude a single drop of water; and this view is nothing more than compatible with the idea of a Being whose creating energies are infinite, and whose presence fills immensity. Here, then, we have presented to our contemplation a boundless scene, corresponding, in variety and extent of space, to the ages of an endless duration; so that we can conceive an immortal mind expatiating amidst objects of benignity, sublimity and grandeur, ever varied and ever new, throughout an eternal round of existence, without ever arriving at a point, where it might be said, “Hitherto shalt thou come, but no farther.” And we have reason to conclude that such will be the privilege and enjoyment of all holy beings. For we are informed on the authority of inspiration, that “in God’s presence there is fulness of joy, and at his right hand are pleasures for evermore.”

7. The science of astronomy is a study which will be prosecuted without intermission in the eternal world. This may be inferred from what has been already stated. For it is chiefly among the numerous worlds dispersed throughout the universe that God is seen, his perfections manifested, and the plans of his moral government displayed before the eyes of unnumbered intelligences. The heavens constitute by far the grandest and most extensive portion of the empire of Omnipotence; and if it shall be one part of the happiness of immortal spirits to behold and investigate the beauty, grandeur and beneficence displayed throughout this empire, we may rest assured, that they will be perpetually employed in such exercises; since the objects of their investigation are boundless as immensity; — or, in other words, astronomy, among o her branches of celestial science, will be their unceasing study and pursuit. As it has for its object, to investigate the motions, relations, phenomena, scenery, and the ultimate destination of the great bodies of the universe, the subject can never be exhausted. Whatever may be said in regard to the absolute perfection of other sciences, astronomy can never be said, at any future period of duration, to have arrived at perfection, in so far as it is a subject of study to finite minds; and, at this moment, even in the view of the Infinite Mind that created the universe, its objects may not yet be completed. For we have reason to believe that the work of creation is still going forward, and, consequently, that new worlds and systems may be continually emerging from nothing under the energies of Creating Power. However capacious, therefore, the intellects of good men, in a future world, may be, they will never be able fully to explore the extent and variety, “the riches and glory” of Him “who dwells in light unapproachable;” — yea, the most exalted of created intelligences, wherever existing, although their mental powers and activities were incomparably superior to those of man, will be inadequate to a full investigation and comprehension of the grandeur and sublimities of that kingdom which extent is throughout the regions of immensity. And this circumstance will constitute one ingredient of their happiness, and a security for its permanency. For, at every period of infinite duration, they will be enabled to look forward to a succession of scenes, objects and enjoyments different from all they had previously contemplated or experienced, without any prospect of a termination. therefore conclude, that, unless the material universe be demolished, and the activities of immortal minds suspended, the objects of astronomy will continue throughout eternity to be the subject of study, and of unceasing contemplation.

Such are some of the advantages attending the study of the science of astronomy. It lies at the foundation of our geographical knowledge — it serves as a handmaid and director to the traveler and navigator — it is subservient to the purposes of universal commerce — it determines the seasons, and directs the operations of the husbandman — it supplies us with an equable standard of time, and settles the events of history — it lends its aid to the propagation of religion, and undermines the foundation of superstition and astrology. Above all, it illustrates the glory of the perfections of the Deity — displays the extent and grandeur of his universal empire — affords subjects of sublime contemplation — enlarges the conceptions, and invigorates the mental powers — counteracts the influence of pride, and promotes the exercise of humility — prepares the soul for the employments of the future world — and demonstrates, that the Creator has it in his power to open up endlessly diversified sources of happiness to every order of his intelligent offspring, throughout all the revolutions of eternity. The moral advantages arising from the study of this science, however, cannot be appreciated or enjoyed, unless such studies and investigations be prosecuted in connection with the facts and principles of Revelation. But, when associated with the study of the Scriptures, and the character of God therein delineated, and the practice of Christian precepts, they are calculated “to make the man of God perfect,” to enlarge his conceptions of Divine perfection, and to expand his views of “the inheritance of the saints in light.”

Such being the advantages to be derived from the study of this science, it ought to form a subject of attention in every seminary intended for the mental and moral improvement of mankind. In order to the improvement of the young in this science, and that its objects may make a deep impression on their minds, they should be directed to make frequent observations, as opportunity offers, on the movements of the nocturnal heavens, and to ascertain all the facts which are obvious to the eye of an attentive spectator. And, while they mark the different constellations, the apparent diurnal motion of the celestial vault, the planets in their several courses, and the moon walking in her brightness among the host of stars — they should be indulged with views of the rings of Saturn, the belts and satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Mercury and Venus, the numerous groups of stars in the Milky Way, the double and treble stars, the most remarkable Nebula, the mountains and plains, the caverns and circular ridges of hills which diversify the surface of the moon, as they appear through good achromatic or reflecting telescopes. Without actual observation, and the exhibition of such interesting objects, the science of astronomy makes, comparatively, little impression on the mind. Our school books on astronomy should be popular in their language and illustrations, but, at the same time, they should be comprehensive in their details, and every exhibition should be clear and well defined. They should contain, not merely descriptions of facts, to be received on the authority of the author or the instructor, but illustrations of the reasons or arguments on which the conclusions of astronomy are founded, and of the modes by which they have been ascertained. And, while planetariums, celestial globes, and planispheres of the heavens are exhibited, care should be taken to direct the observations of the pupils as frequently as possible to the objects themselves, and to guard them against the limited and distorted notions which all kinds of artificial representations have a tendency to convey.

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Bibliography

Dick, Thomas. Advantages of the Study of Astronomy. In: Elijah Hinsdale Burritt, The Geography of the Heavens. 5th ed. New York, 1850 (1st ed, 1833). Dick’s Introduction first appeared in the 3rd edition (1836).

Dick, Thomas. Celestial Scenery, or, The Wonders of the Planetary System Displayed; Illustrating the Perfections of Deity and a Plurality of Worlds. Collected Works of Thomas Dick, Vol. VII. Philadelphia, 1845.

Dick, Thomas. The Solar System. Collected Works of Thomas Dick, Vol. X. Philadelphia, 1853.

 

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Richard of St. Victor: Allegorical Meaning of Jacob’s Wives and Children

GENESIS 29ff tells of the wives and children of Jacob, grandson of the patriarch Abraham.  Jacob had 12 sons, from whom descended the 12 tribes of Israel.  The story’s details suggest that, like the rest of Genesis, it has an allegorical meaning.  Richard of Saint-Victor’s (fl. 1165) analysis of this, a work titled the Twelve Patriarchs (Benjamin Minor), is a masterpiece of psychological allegoresis, rivaling the even seminal contributions of Philo of Alexandria to this genre.

As Genesis explains, Jacob married Laban’s daughters, Leah and Rachel, and also their respective handmaids, Zilpah and Bilhah  These four mothers bore 12 sons and one daughter.  For Richard — following the long tradition established by Philo (and mediated through Origen, Ambrose and Jerome; see Sheridan, 2012) Jacob symbolizes the ‘practicer’ of moral reformation and spiritual growth.  That is, practice here is understood in the sense of askesis, namely the practical effort one makes to mature into a self-realized holy and spiritual person.

Each of Jacob’s wives and children, according to Richard, symbolizes a distinct psychological disposition relevant to this journey. Leah and Rachel represent the affective and intellectual sides of our psyche or soul, and Zilpah and Bilah are sensation and imagination, which, according to Richard, serve affection and reason, respectively.

Each son and daughter is a virtuous disposition originating in our psychological nature (in effect, they are very much like Jungian archetypes, but all concerned with our moral and spiritual development). They emerge in a particular order and supply some necessary function as we proceed towards higher levels of moral integration and spiritual consciousness.  This is a cyclical process, something we repeat often, perhaps even daily in our constant struggle to rise from worldly-mindedness and egoism to spiritual mindedness.

Two give two examples, Naphtali, a son of Bilah, is the disposition to uplift our soul from consideration of material things to the eternal goods these things suggest or symbolize; and Gad, a son of Zilpha, represents abstinence, or the intentional putting aside of sensual pleasures. Ultimately we arrive at the births of Joseph (discriminative self-knowledge) and Benjamin (religious contemplation).

Whether this is the original intended meaning of Genesis here or not, merely taken on its own terms Richard’s exegesis supplies an insightful and valuable analysis of the psychology of the spiritual journey. It’s also landmark in the history of Old Testament interpretation and deserves wider attention today.

The following excerpt concerning Joseph exemplifies quality of the entire work.

Richard of Saint-Victor. The Twelve Patriarchs (Benjamin Minor), Chs. 71−72

Chapter LXXI. Concerning the two offspring of reason, viz., grace of discretion and grace of contemplation.

By this Joseph the soul is continually instructed and at times is led to full knowledge of itself, just as by his [full] brother Benjamin it is at times lifted up to the contemplation of God. For just as we understand grace of discretion by Joseph, so we understand grace of contemplation by Benjamin. Both are born from [Rachel] because knowledge of God and of self are learned from Reason. Benjamin is born long after Joseph because the soul that has not been practiced over a long time and educated fully in knowledge of self is not raised up to knowledge of God. In vain he raises the eye of the heart to see God when he is not yet prepared to see himself. Let a person first learn to know his own invisible things before he presumes that he is able to grasp at invisible divine things. You must know the invisible things of your own spirit before you can be capable of knowing the invisible things of God. If you are not able to know yourself, how do you have the boldness to grasp at those things which are above you?

Chapter LXXII. How the soul is lifted up to contemplation of God by means of full knowledge of self.

The rational soul discovers without doubt that it is the foremost and principal mirror for seeing God. For if the invisible things of God are seen, being understood by the intellect by means of those things which have been made (cf. Rom. 1:20), where, I ask, have the traces of knowledge been found more clearly imprinted than in His image? … Whoever thirsts to see his God — let him wipe his mirror, let him cleanse his spirit. And so the true Joseph does not cease to hold, wipe and gaze into this mirror incessantly: to hold it so that it does not adhere to the earth, after it has fallen down by means of love; to wipe it so that it does not become dirty from the dust of useless thoughts; to gaze into it so that the eye of his intention does not turn toward empty pursuits. When the mirror has been wiped and gazed into for a long time, a kind of splendor of divine light begins to shine in it and a great beam of unexpected vision appears to his eyes. This light illumined the eyes of him who said: “The light of your face has been sealed upon us, Lord; you have put joy in my heart” (Ps. 4:7). Therefore, from the vision of this light that it wonders at within itself, the soul is kindled from above in a marvelous way and is animated to see the living light that is above it. I say, from this vision the soul conceives the flame of longing for the sight of God, and it lays hold of a pledge. And so the mind that now bums with longing for this vision should know that if it already hopes for what it longs for, it already has conceived Benjamin himself. By hoping the mind conceives; by longing it goes into labor; and the more longing increases, the closer it comes to giving birth. (Zinn, pp. 129−130)

Richard’s sequel to this work, The Mystical Ark (Benjamin Major), treats of the fruits of the ascetical process, that is, contemplation: its nature, ascending levels, and culmination in mystical union with God. That work is important both for its own sake and for its influence on St. Bonaventure’s Journey of the Mind to God.

Bibliography

Chase, Steven. Angelic Wisdom: The Cherubim and the Grace of Contemplation in Richard of St. Victor. Notre Dame University Press, 1995.

Châtillon, Jean; Duchet-Suchaux, Monique. Les douze Patriarches ou Benjamin Minor. Texte critique et traduction; introduction, notes et index par Jean Longère. Sources chrétiennes 419. Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1997.

Palmén, Ritva. Richard of St. Victor’s Theory of Imagination. Brill, 2014. Dissertation, University of Helsinki, 2013.

Richard of Saint-Victor, De praeparatione animi ad contemplationem, liber dictus Benjamin Minor. Omnia opera. Patrologia Latina, vol. 196, ed. J. P. Migne. Paris, 1855, col. 1−64.

Sheridan, Mark. Jacob and Israel: A contribution to the history of an interpretation. In: Mark Sheridan, From the Nile to the Rhone and Beyond: Studies in Early Monastic Literature and Scriptural Interpretation. Rome, 2012; pp. 315−334. Originally published in: Studia Anselmo, 116, 1995, 219−241.

Zinn, Grover A. (tr.). Richard of St. Victor: The Twelve Patriarchs, The Mystical Ark and Book Three of The Trinity. Paulist Press, 1979.

Richard of Saint-Victor: On the Movements of Contemplation

IN  A SUSTAINED analogy, Richard of Saint-Victor (1110−1173) likens contemplation to the movements of a bird (he doesn’t say what kind; a hummingbird fits the image well, but they only exist in the Western Hemisphere).  He evidently attached some importance to this analogy, and we might assume it’s something he developed from his own contemplation of natural phenomena.

An interesting detail his rather unexpected mention of major and minor premises (parts of a logical syllogism) — illustrating the integral nature of Victorine philosophy, artfully combining what today we might call left-brain and right-brain functions, i.e., logical analysis with creative intuition.

While I personally found this description of the phenomenology of contemplation fascinating, I hesitated to post it, thinking others might find it less interesting.  But yesterday a bird seemed to deliberately hover a few feet in front of my face, which I took it as sufficiently like an oracle to proceed.

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Richard of Saint-Victor. The Mystical Ark (Benjamin Major) 1.5

That the mode of contemplation operates in many ways

While the penetrating ray of contemplation is always suspended near something because of greatness of wonder, [admirationis magnitudine], it operates neither always nor uniformly in the same mode.  For that vivacity of intelligence in the soul of a contemplative (1) at one time goes out and returns with marvelous quickness, (2) at another time bends itself, as it were, into a circle, and (3) yet at another time gathers itself together in one place and fixes itself, as it were, motionless.

We see this pattern daily in the birds of the sky.  You may see some raising themselves high, others plunging low — and often repeating their ascent and descent.  Some turn to the side, now to the right, now to the left, or moving ahead a little, or advancing almost not at all, again repeating their movements with great constancy.

Others thrust ahead in great haste. But then, with equal rapidity, return to the rear, and repeating this for some time.

Others move in a circle many times,  one time a little wider, another time slightly smaller,  always returning to the same place.

Others suspend themselves for a long time in the same place with rapidly vibrating wings, fix themselves motionless and cling to the same place. It’s as though they wish to exclaim, “It is good for us to be here” (Matt. 17:4).

Similarly the flight of our contemplation is varied in many ways and of varying modes.

At one time it rises from the lower to the higher; at another it falls from the higher to the lower.  By the quickness of its consideration it moves at one time from the part to the whole; at another time from the whole to the part.

And at one time it draws the argument for that which it ought to know from a major premise; at another from a minor premise. At one moment it turns aside into this part, at another moment into the opposite part; it elicits an idea of contraries from knowledge of contraries, and usually varies the performance of its reasoning according to the differing mode of opposites.

At some time it runs forward and quickly runs back when it discerns the quality or mode of anything whatsoever, either from the effects or from the causes and whatever has preceded or followed.

But sometimes our speculation is led as it were in a circle, when some things are considered that are in common with many things or when, for the determination of any one thing whatsoever, a reason is drawn and assigned now to similar things, now to things having similar essences or accidents.

The fixed focus of our consideration is placed in one place, immobile, when the attention of the contemplative gladly  remains with the being of any thing whatsoever in order to observe and marvel at its proper nature.

Perhaps we shall more fitly say that to rise and fall, to go and return, to turn aside now here, now there, to continue at one time in a circle, and finally to cling together in unity: this is nothing other than by means of the greatest quickness to pass, in the mind,  now from the lowest things to the highest, or from the highest to the lowest; now from the oldest things to the newest or from the newest to the oldest; at one time from unequal to equal kinds of merits and rewards; at another time, to consider with diligent examination the circumstance and connection of everything whatsoever; and finally, at some time, satisfying the soul with the rareness of some speculation and wonder at the rareness.  See, as we have said above, how the activity of our contemplation is always suspended and is drawn forth according to some thing, while the soul of the contemplative gladly remains in the manifestation of its joy and is always eager either to return into itself frequently or to continue immobile in the same place for a long time.

Listen—concerning that mode of contemplation which is accustomed to go forward and back in a certain manner: “The living creatures will go and return in the likeness of flashing lightning” (Ezek. 1:14).  [JU: referring to the Chariot Vison of Ezekiel and the four ‘living creatures’]

The one who moves upward and downward, as it were, is described by the Psalmist in a few words: “They rise all the way to the heavens and they fall all the way into the abyss” (Ps. 106:26).

With respect to that mode of contemplation which, for instance, is led in a circle, you are admonished by the prophetic voice where it is said: “Lift up your eyes in a circle and see” (Isa. 60:4).

The ray of contemplation is fixed motionless in one place, for example, when anyone experiences in himself Habakkuk in that place: “Sun and moon stood still in their dwelling place” (Hab. 3:11).

It remains for us to see how many kinds of contemplation there are.
Source: Zinn, Grover A. (tr.). Richard of St. Victor: The Twelve Patriarchs, The Mystical Ark and Book Three of The Trinity. Paulist Press, 1979; pp. 158ff (edited and paraphrased).

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While the analogy to a bird’s flight suggests these are phenomenological observations of Richard based on his own experience, he may also have had in mind a section of Pseudo-Dionysius’ Divine Names on the soul’s movements:

9. The soul too has movement. First it moves in a circle, that is, it turns within itself and away from what is outside and there is an inner concentration of its intellectual powers. A sort of fixed revolution causes it to return from the multiplicity of externals, to gather in upon itself and then, in this undispersed condition, to join those who are themselves in a powerful union. From there the revolution brings the soul to the Beautiful and the Good, which is beyond all things, is one and the same, and has neither beginning nor end. But whenever the soul receives, in accordance with its capacities, the enlightenment of divine knowledge and does so not by way of the mind nor in some [705B] mode arising out of its identity, but rather through discursive reasoning, in mixed and changeable activities, then it moves in a spiral fashion. And its movement is in a straight line when, instead of circling in upon its own intelligent unity (for this is the circular), it proceeds to the things around it, and is uplifted from external things, as from certain variegated and pluralized symbols, to the simple and united contemplations.
Source: Pseudo-Dionysius, Divine Names (Περὶ θείων ὀνομάτων; De Divinis Nominibus) 4.9; tr. Luibheid & Rorem.

St. Thomas Aquinas in Summa Theologica 2−2, Question 180.6 (The movements of contemplation assigned by Dionysius) mentions both the passage directly above and Richard’s discussion.

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Bibliography

Aris, Marc-Aeilko (ed.). Contemplatio: Philosophische Studien zum Traktat Benjamin Maior des Richard von St. Victor. Improved edition of text. Frankfurt am Main, 1996.

Chase, Steven. Angelic Wisdom: The Cherubim and the Grace of Contemplation in Richard of St. Victor. Notre Dame University Press, 1995.

Luibheid, Colm; Rorem, Paul (trs.). Pseudo-Dionysius: The Complete Works. Paulist Press, 1987.

Palmén, Ritva. Richard of St. Victor’s Theory of Imagination. Brill, 2014. Dissertation, University of Helsinki, 2013.

Richard of Saint-Victor, Omnia opera. Patrologia Latina, vol. 196, ed. J. P. Migne. Paris, 1855; cols. 68C−70B.

The Summa Theologiæ of St. Thomas Aquinas. Second and Revised Edition. London, 1920. Online editor, Kevin Knight.

Zinn, Grover A. (tr.). Richard of St. Victor: The Twelve Patriarchs, The Mystical Ark and Book Three of The Trinity. Paulist Press, 1979.

 

Hugh of St. Victor: Noah’s Ark as an Allegory for Contemplation

Art: (c) Conrad Rudolph

the ark is the secret place of our own heart

IN THE early High Middle Ages, before Scholasticism arose to dominate Christian theology, the Abbey of St. Victor in Paris was a leading intellectual center. Some work performed there built on the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius (translated into Latin two centuries earlier) to develop what we might call a science of contemplation, laying important groundwork for later Christian mysticism. Allegorical interpretation of Scripture supported this. Hugh of St. Victor’s (c. 1096–1141) exegesis of the story of Noah’s Ark is an example.

Philo (Questions and Answers on Genesis 1.89−2.78) and St. Ambrose (De Noe et Arca; PL 14.361−416) had, much earlier, allegorically interpreted the story of Noah and the Ark. In the light of these writings, the story emerges as a far more subtle and relevant myth than people ordinarily suppose. It’s very important to attend to specific details — such as the ark was three stories high, had a window and door, and that Noah first sent out a raven.

According to art historian Conrad Rudolph, Hugh lectured on the topic using a large, 10-foot square painting summarizing the symbolism. The figure shown above is Rudolph’s reconstruction.

Now the figure of this spiritual building which I am going to present to you is Noah’s ark. This your eye shall see outwardly, so that your soul may be fashioned to its likeness inwardly. You will see there certain colours, shapes, and figures which will be pleasant to behold. But you must understand that these are put there, that from them you may learn wisdom, instruction, and virtue, to adorn your soul. …

The third [ark] is that which wisdom builds daily in our hearts through continual meditation on the law of God. …

[W]hoever makes it his endeavour to cut himself off from the enjoyment of this world and cultivate the virtues, must with the assistance of God’s grace erect within himself a building of virtues three hundred cubits long in faith of Holy Trinity, fifty cubits wide in charity, and thirty cubits high in the hope that is in Christ, a building long in good works and wide in love and lofty in desire, so that his heart may be where Christ is seated at the right hand of God. …

If, then, we have begun to live persistently in our own heart through the practice of meditation, we have already in a manner ceased to belong to time; and, having become dead as it were to the world, we are living inwardly with God. We shall then easily make light of anything that fortune brings upon us outwardly, if our heart is there fixed where we are not subject to change, where we neither seek to have again things past, nor look for those to come, where we neither desire the pleasant things of this life, nor fear things contrary. Let us therefore have right thoughts, let us have pure and profitable thoughts, for of such material we shall build our ark. These are the timbers that float when they are put into the water and burn when placed in the fire; for the tide of fleshly pleasures does not weigh down such thoughts, but the flame of charity enkindles them. …

As we have said before, the ark of the flood is the secret place of our own heart, in which we must hide from the tumult of this world. But because the feebleness of our condition itself prevents our staying long in the silence of inward contemplation, we have a way out by the door and window. The door denotes the way out through action, the window the way out through thought. The door is below, the window above, because actions pertain to the body and thoughts to the soul. That is why the birds went out through the window and the beasts and men through the door. …

But the fact that the door is situated in the side denotes that we must never leave the secret chamber of our heart through our own deliberate choice, but only as necessity may happen to demand. …

But the fact that the door is situated in the side denotes that we must never leave the secret chamber of our heart through our own deliberate choice, but only as necessity may happen to demand.  …

Now we go out by action in four ways. For some actions are carnal those, that is to say, which are concerned with physical need; others are spiritual, and are concerned with the instruction of the mind. Good men and bad go forth for both. Those who are enslaved to the outward fulfilling of their lusts are like the unclean animals that went forth from the ark. Those, however, who discharge them from necessity are animals indeed, but clean. …

Eve ‘saw that the tree was pleasant to the eyes, and was good for food, and she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat’. Those who in this way issue forth through thought are like the raven which did not return. For when they find outside what gives them evil pleasure, they never want to come back again to the ark of conscience. …

The other three kinds of contemplation, however, are symbolized by the going forth of the dove who, when she was sent out and found no rest for her foot, returned at evening carrying in her mouth an olive branch in leaf. She went out empty, but she did not return so. For she found outside that which she did not have within, although the thing that she brought in she did not love outside. The olive branch in leaf denotes a good state of soul.

Source: Hugh of St. Victor, De arca Noe morali. In: Hugh of St. Victor: Selected Spiritual Writings, Translated by a religious of the Community of St. Mary the Virgin,  Harper, 1962.  [ebook].

Latin: Hugh of Saint-Victor. Omnia opera. Patrologia Latina, ed. J. P. Migne, vol. 176. Paris, 1854. Cols. 618−680.

Art:  Rudolph, Conrad. The Mystic Ark: Hugh of Saint Victor, Art, and Thought in the Twelfth Century. Cambridge University Press, 2014.

Richard of St. Victor, The Ark of the Covenant as an Allegory for Contemplation

IN THE 12th century the Abbey of St. Victor outside Paris was a major teaching center. One dominant interest there was to develop a science of contemplation, drawing on such sources as St. Augustine, the Benedictine monastic tradition, and Pseudo-Dionysius. Allegorical interpretation of Scripture reached an advanced level. Richard of St. Victor (1110?−1173), for example, wrote a treatise on contemplation in the form of an exegesis of the Ark of the Covenant in Exodus 25. This is variously called Benjamin Major, The Mystical Ark, and The Grace of Contemplation. His writings profoundly affected subsequent Christian mysticism, including St. Bonaventure, the Rhineland mystics, and Spanish mysticism.

The Mystical Ark is a tour de force of psychological allegorical interpretation, as is also Richards’ related work, The Twelve Patriarchs (Benjamin Minor). The subject is the meaning of the Ark of the Covenant. For Richard,the covenant means a life of Christian perfection — what Underhill and others call the unitive life.  In this condition the soul is so completely united with God that it constantly seeks, learns, and follows God’s will in a life of Christian wisdom and harmony; one principle way this harmony is expressed is in charity towards others.  The ark is the sanctified soul, which must be prepared to receive and house, as it were, the covenant by means of the practice of contemplation.  Hence the work is concerned with the construction of the soul-ark by contemplation. The Twelve Patriarchs describes the development of moral and intellectual virtue which must precede the work of contemplation.

For Richard, contemplation (contemplatio) is the highest of three ascending forms of cognitive activity, the others being undirected or aimless thinking (cogitatio; our usual state of mentation), and directed thought or meditation (meditatio).  Contemplation is understood in a general way as the relaxed gaze of the mind in wonder and admiration, sustained yet dynamic (see his excellent analogy to a bird’s flight here).

Contemplation itself has six ascending levels, divided into groups of two.  The three groups correspond to the realms of the material world and senses (contemplation of the natural world), the realm of the human mind/soul, and of the divine mysteries of God’s Essence and the Trinity. A later post will describe the six levels of contemplation in more detail. These are of considerable interest for their own sake, and also in that they influenced the six-stage ascent to God described by St. Bonaventure in his Journey of the Soul to God, as well as the nine-tiered mental hieararchy of fellow Victorine, Thomas Gallus.

At the end of The Mystical Ark, Richard supplied a helpful recapitulation of the entire work, including a summary of Ark symbolism, shown in part below.  For now, let this serve as a foretaste of his powers of allegorical interpretation. This section helps one see how he approaches symbols, but does not adequately convey his engaging prose style and mastery of organization. Readers are in any case referred to Zinn’s accessible English translation and Introduction.

By the tabernacle of the covenant we understand the state of perfection.
Where perfection of the soul is, there also is the habitation of God.
The more the mind approaches perfection, the more closely it is joined in a covenant with God.
However, the tabernacle itself ought to have an atrium around about it.
By atrium we understand discipline of the body; by tabernacle we understand discipline of the mind. …
No person knows what belongs to the inner person except the spirit of humanity that is in him.
The habitus of the inner person is divided into a rational and an intellectual habitus.
The rational habitus is understood by the exterior tabernacle, but the intellectual habitus is understood by the interior
tabernacle.
We call the rational sense that by which we discern the things of ourself;
In this place we call the intellectual sense that by which we are raised up to the speculation of divine things. …
A person enters into the first tabernacle when he returns to himself.
A person enters into the second tabernacle when he goes beyond himself.
When going beyond himself surely a person is elevated to God.
A person remains in the first tabernacle by consideration of himself; in the second, by contemplation of God. …
In the atrium of the tabernacle was the altar of burnt offering.
In the first tabernacle were the candelabrum, the table, and the altar of incense.
In the interior tabernacle was the Ark of the Covenant.
The exterior altar is affliction of the body; the interior altar is contrition of the mind.
The candelabrum is the grace of discretion; the table is the teaching of sacred reading.
By the Ark of the Covenant we understand the grace of contemplation.
On the exterior altar the bodies of animals were burned up; by affliction of the body carnal longings are annihilated.
On the interior altar aromatic smoke was offered to the Lord; by contrition of heart the flame of celestial longings is
kindled.
A candelabrum is a holder for lights; discretion is the lamp of the inner person.
On the table bread is placed; by it those who are hungry may be refreshed.
However sacred reading certainly is the refreshment of the soul.
An ark is a secret place for gold and silver; the grace of contemplation lays hold of the treasury of celestial wisdom.
Good working pertains to the exterior altar.
Zealous meditation pertains to the candelabrum.
Sacred reading pertains to the table.
Devoted prayer pertains to the interior altar.

(Source: Zinn)

Bibliography

Aris, Marc-Aeilko (ed.). Contemplatio: philosophische Studien zum Traktat Benjamin maior des Richard von St. Viktor, mit einer verbesserten Edition des Textes. Frankfurt am Main, 1996.

Chase, Steven. Angelic Wisdom: The Cherubim and the Grace of Contemplation in Richard of St. Victor. Notre Dame University Press, 1995.

Coolman, Boyd Taylor. The Victorines. In: Ed. Julia A. Lamm, The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Christian Mysticism, Wiley, 2013; pp. 251−266.

Cousins, Ewert H. (tr.). Bonaventure: The Soul’s Journey into God. Paulist Press, 1978.

Emery, Jr., Kent. Richard of St. Victor. In: Eds. Jorge J. E. Gracia, Timothy B. Noone, A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Blackwell, 2002, 588−594.

McGinn, Bernard. The Flowering of Mysticism: Men and Women in the New Mysticism (1200−1350). New York: Crossroad, 1998.

Palmén, Ritva. Richard of St. Victor’s Theory of Imagination. Brill, 2014. Based on author’s dissertation, University of Helsinki, 2013.

Richard of Saint-Victor, Omnia opera. Patrologia Latina, vol. 196, cols. 191−202, ed. J. P. Migne. Paris, 1855. Online Latin text.

Robilliard, J.-A. Les six genres de contemplation chez Richard de Saint-Victor et leur origine platonicienne. Revue de sciences philosophiques et théologiques 28, 1939, 229–233.

Zinn, Grover A. (tr.). Richard of St. Victor: The Twelve Patriarchs, The Mystical Ark and Book Three of The Trinity. Paulist Press, 1979.

St. Bonaventure: Contemplation of Creation’s Sevenfold Splendor

FROM these visible things, therefore, one rises to consider the power, wisdom and goodness of God as existing, living, intelligent, purely spiritual, incorruptible and unchangeable.  This reflection can be extended according to the sevenfold properties of creatures — which is a sevenfold testimony to the divine power, wisdom and goodness — if we consider the origin, magnitude, multitude, beauty, fulness, activity and order of all things.

1. The origin of things, according to their creation, distinction and embellishment, as the work of the six days, proclaims the divine power that produces all things from nothing, the divine wisdom that clearly distinguishes all things, and the divine goodness that lavishly adorns all things.

2. The magnitude of things, in the mass of their length, width and depth; in their great power extending in length, width and depth as appears in the diffusion of light; in the efficiency of their operations which are internal, continuous and diffused as appears in the operation of fire — all this clearly manifests the immensity of the power, wisdom and goodness of the triune God, who by his power, presence and essence exists uncircumscribed in all things.

3. The multitude of things in their generic, specific and individual diversity in substance, form or figure, and efficiency — beyond all human calculation clearly suggests and shows the immensity of the three previously mentioned attributes in God.

4. The beauty of things, in the variety of light, shape and color in simple, mixed and even organic bodies such as heavenly bodies, and minerals (like stones and metals), and plants and animals clearly proclaims the three previously mentioned attributes.

5. The fulness of things by which matter is full of forms because of seminal principles, form is full of power because of its active potency, power is full of effects because of its efficiency, clearly declares the same attributes.

6. The activity, multiple inasmuch as it is natural, artificial and moral, by its manifold variety shows the immensity of that power, art and goodness which is “the cause of being, the basis of understanding and the order of living”

7. The order in duration, position and influence, that is, before and after, higher and lower, nobler and less noble, in the book of creation clearly indicates the primacy, sublimity and dignity of the First Principle and thus the infinity of his power. The order of the divine law, precepts and judgments in the book of Scripture shows the immensity of his wisdom. And the order of the divine sacraments, benefits and recompense in the body of the Church shows the immensity of his goodness. In this way order itself leads us most clearly into the first and highest, the most powerful, the wisest and the best.

Whoever, therefore, is not enlightened by such splendor of created things is blind;
whoever is not awakened by such outcries is deaf;
whoever does not praise God because of all these effects is dumb;
whoever does not discover the First Principle from such clear signs is a fool.

Therefore, open your eyes,
alert the ears of your spirit,
open your lips
and apply your heart

so that in all creatures you may see, hear, praise, love and worship, glorify and honor your God lest the whole world rise against you. For because of this the whole world will fight against the foolish.  On the contrary, it will be a matter of glory for the wise, who can say with the Prophet: You have gladdened me, Lord, by your deeds and in the works of your hands I will rejoice. How great are your works, Lord! You have made all things in wisdom; the earth is filled with your creatures.

Source: Cousins, Ewert H. (tr.). Bonaventure: The Soul’s Journey into God. Paulist Press, 1978; pp. 64−68.

Latin: S. Bonaventurae, Itinerarium mentis in Deum 1.1. In: S. Bonaventurae opera omnia, Vol. V, Fathers of the Collegii S. Bonaventura (eds.), Florence: Quaracchi, pp. 295-316.